The beginning of an independent tradition of astronomical research in Indonesia: The history of Bosscha Observatory 1919-1939

The founding of Bosscha Observatory in Lembang, Indonesia, in the 1920s can be seen within the context of the diffusion of modern science from Europe and the conduct of scientific research in colonial situation. Colonialism, in any case, consists of unequal power relations not only between the colonists with the aboriginal population, but also between the colonizing country—the metropolitan country—with the colony—the periphery (in this context, Dutch East Indies). This inequality is also apparent in the conduct of scientific research, in which research in the colony is dictated by metropolitan institutes based on their ambitions and interests. Astronomical research in the colony, for example, are performed for the purpose of mapping and timekeeping. Research in natural sciences aimed for pure learning and the contribution to the body of knowledge is scarce and solely based on the program set up by metropolitan institutes in The Netherlands.

Jean Oudemans is the astronomer who were relatively successful in balancing the two opposing interests. In 1843, at age 16, he was enrolled as a student in the University of Leiden and later studied under Leiden’s foremost astronomer, Frederik Kaiser. Under Kaiser’s guidance, in 1852 he finished his doctoral dissertation on the determination of Leiden’s longitude. In 1857, under the order of Kaiser and the sponsorship of the Kingdom of The Netherlands, Oudemans set for the Dutch East Indies to map the colony. For the next 18 years he mapped the island of Java. His work was later published in six volumes. However, in-between his activities as cartographer, he can still performed research activities in pure science by observing stellar occultations and coordinating eclipse observations. After his return from the East Indies he became the director of Utrecht Observatory, but the colonial government later asked for his return to map other islands outside of Java. Oudemans managed to gain the commitments of the Dutch government to finances his astronomical research in Utrecht, but he had to concentrate his attention and expertise to practical purposes such as cartography.

In the second decade of the twentieth century, astronomical research in Europe and The United States has entered a new phase. It has been realized that the Sun and other stars are bound gravitationally to each other and are part of a stellar system called Galaxy. The desires to understand better the structure of this stellar system became the impetus to build larger telescopes in the Earth’s southern hemisphere. At that time, the largest telescopes are located in observatories in the northern hemisphere: In Europe or in the United States. This concentrates observation programs strictly to northern hemisphere of the sky, making the the southern sky practically an astronomer’s terra incognita. This drive to obtain a more complete data was also the result of a new division of labour within astronomy: theorists and observers. To formulate their theories, metropolitan theorists required a more comprehensive data, more than what can be supplied by northern observatories.

European colonial powers scrambled for southern observatories: Britain build observatories in South Africa, France in Madagascar, Germany in Argentina and Samoa, and even private donors in the United States funded the construction of an observatory in South America. Only The Netherlands, as a major colonial power, did not possessed comparable observatory either in the metropole or in their colony in the Dutch East Indies. This situation is related to their geographical condition in The Netherlands: It often rains and foggy, most of the lands are lower than the sea level, with only a few hills. This condition drives the Dutch astronomers to seek international cooperation with astronomers from countries in possession of large telescopes.

In this way, Dutch astronomers gained international reputation both as observers and theorists. The director of Leiden Observatory, Willem de Sitter, has worked at the Cape Observatory in South Africa and later on became famous for his works on cosmology. Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn, the founder of the astronomical “laboratory” at Groningen, has investigated the motion and distributions of stars in our Galaxy by analyzing hundreds of thousands of photographic plates taken by astronomer David Gill at the Cape Observatory. Kapteyn realizes that the small number of observations of the southern sky caused the lack of data and understanding on the whole distribution of stars in the Galaxy. This metropolitan astronomers interest to build a southern observing station came almost at the same time with the enthusiasm of civil engineer-turned-astronomer Joan Voûte.

Born in the city of Madioen, Java, in 1879, Joan George Erardus Gijsbert Voûte was born from a colonist family of Huguenots whose ancestors fled from France and settled in The Netherlands after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685. Following the tradition of Dutch colonists, Voûte’s parents sent him and his brothers to study in the The Netherlands. In 1908, after graduating from civil engineering in Delft Institute of Technology, he worked at Leiden Observatory. When he was a student at Delft, Voûte became interested in observing variable stars and decides to become an astronomer. Voûte stayed in Leiden for five years, working without pay for the first two years and later became an assistant observer. His specialization was double stars and his first publication on the subject came out in 1908. Without a doctorate degree, Voûte realized that it will be difficult to lead research in The Netherlands. His sight is directed outside, and he saw that astronomical investigations are hindered due to the lack of observatory and observers in the southern sky. Voûte wanted to observe the southern sky, and with Kapteyn’s support he successfully obtained a position at the Cape Observatory and worked observing double stars and measuring stellar parallax.

In South Africa, Voûte struggled to obtain a permanent position at a local university, but he lamented the ignorance of local government to his proposals. He started thinking to return to the Dutch East Indies and doing research there. In 1919, the director of the Royal Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory, Willem van Bemmelen, offered Voûte a temporary position in his institute to carry out observations with the institute’s telescope. Voûte accepted the offer, hoping to transform his position into a permanent one. In the beginning of 1920, Voûte started thinking to build an observatory that stand separately from van Bemmelen’s Meteorological Institute.

What Voûte had in mind at that time was an observatory tied to the metropolitan astronomers, “all other countries already have such institutions in their colonies,” wrote Voûte to the former director of Leiden Observatory, Hendricus van de Sande Bakhuyzen, who was already retired at that time. Voûte also wrote to his colleagues in The Netherlands, asking them to have the Amsterdam Academy of Sciences to put pressure to the colonial ministry to “ask the government in the Indies to consider the idea of carrying out astronomical observations.” He also asked the support of de Sitter and Kapteyn, who he believed that both support would gain the financing of the colonial government. Voûte argued that this observatory would fulfill both disiplinary and national needs: This observatory would “compensate for the domination of observatories in the Northern Hemisphere and complement them.” On the subject of management, Voûte offered a middle road between the case of Greenwich and Cape Observatory—two observatories both run under the British Navy but in practice are independent from one another—and the case of Harvard and Arequipa—where the former completely controlled the latter. Voûte suggested an independent director who will closely follow the research programs set in Leiden.

Voûte’s offer on this master-and-servant relations between the metropolitan observatories with the colonial one changed when he started to forge friendship with two tea planters from Bandung: Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha and Rudolf Albert Kerkhoven. Voûte was confident that his collaborations with the two businessman will not only gain him support from the colonial government but also will elevate his standing in the eyes of the metropolitan astronomers.

With the backings of Bosscha and Kerkhoven, Voûte wrote to the then adjunct director of Leiden Observatory (de Sitter was convalescing from tuberculosis in Switzerland), Ejnar Hertzsprung, urging him to appoint Bosscha as Leiden’s representative in the Indies, and that he, Voûte, be named director of the new observatory. Voûte also outlined his plans that this observatory will be equipped with a refractor with focal length of at least 7 meter and will be a unique telescope in the southern hemisphere as well as the largest in Dutch territory. This would of course gain the interests of metropolitan astronomers both in Leiden and Groningen, and Bosscha would finance its construction.

Voûte also seeked Kapteyn’s support, and Kapteyn respond enthusiastically. As an astronomer without a telescope of his own, he had collaborated with other observatories for many decades, and thus he would gain the most by collaborating with Voûte. He stressed the importance of cooperation between observers and theorists, and offered that the resulting photographic plates taken from this new observatory be analyzed at Groningen.

Kapteyn was also of the opinion that the metropolitan observatories must have a say regarding things undertaken in the Indies. He agreed with Voûte’s decision that the new Javan observatory will be under Leiden’s control, but wanted a more balanced power-sharing arrangement. “In order not to place such a heavy load on the shoulders of Leiden Observatory,” Kapteyn proposed a committee consists of the director of the new observatory, the director at Leiden, the director at Groningen, and the major benefactors.

Willem de Sitter, still convalescing in Switzerland, was uninterested with this power-sharing arrangement with Groningen. In his opinion, the director in Java would make all the local decisions. He also suggested the formation of a board of curators with the power “not only over the Indian observatory but also over the Leiden and Groningen observatories.” Such an arrangement was clearly unacceptable to Groningen, but the strong position of Leiden within the Dutch educational system gave de Sitter stronger authority over other Dutch astronomical institutions. Voûte would take care of the daily activities of his observatory, but Leiden would determine the direction of his research.

Voûte plainly sided with Kapteyn against de Sitter. He wrote that the observatory in the Indies will be build over a parcel of land in Lembang near Bandung, West Java. This observatory will be used for observing and what will be observed will be agreed upon “in joint consultation with astronomers in Holland.” He agreed with the composition of the curatorial board suggested by Kapteyn. The Lembang director will have full authority on the daily management of the observatory and will schedule the observing times based on the broad guidelines set down by the curators. Half of the available observing times will be devoted to the metropolitan astronomers, while the other half will be the Lembang Director’s right.

In the middle of 1920 Voûte also asked renowned physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, in his capacity as chair of the Amsterdam Academy of Sciences, to write a letter of support to the government of the East Indies as well as an appreciation letter to Bosscha. Lorentz raised this letter in one of the meetings of the academy and formed a commission to discuss Voûte’s requests. This commission was headed by Hendricus van de Sande Bakhuyzen. de Sitter swiftly wrote to van de Sande Bakhuyzen on the importance of the observatory at Lembang to be a satellite of Leiden. Moreover, Hertzsprung also offered a guiding principle on the division of labour between Leiden and Lembang: “observation in the Indies and analysis in Holland.” After series of discussions, the Academy finally wrote a letter to the Dutch Government, supporting the building of an observatory in the colony and calling the government to provide their “indispensable support and cooperation.” If the Dutch Government, who has authority over the Governor General of the Dutch East Indies, is providing them support, it would be clear that the metropolitan astronomers at Leiden and Groningen would gain control of a major Southern Hemisphere observatory. However, the influence of K.A.R. Bosscha as the observatory’s principal benefactor is not something to be trifled with.

By the 1920s, Karel Albert Rudolf Bosscha has became one of the richest man in Java. He was born in 1865 in The Hague, The Netherlands, the son of physicist Johannes Bosscha, Jr.—The chair of the physics department at the polytechnical school of Delft (later Delft Institute of Technology)—and Paulina Emilia Kerkhoven, the daughter of a tea magnate in Java. Bosscha studied engineering at his father’s school, and became a member of a local astronomical association. Bosscha set for the Indies in 1887 and started to work at the tea plantation belonging to his Kerkhoven relatives. Bosscha’s clever handling of the company gained him the position of director of the Malabar Tea Plantation at Pangalengan, Bandung. By the end of the Great War, 1918, Bosscha’s proficiency in trading and investations has made him one of the richest and most influental man in Java. He is also a major philanthropist and has donated a large sum of money to scientific institutions in the Indies, mainly to the Technische Hogeschool te Bandoeng (THB—Bandung Technological College, presently Bandung Institute of Technology).

Rudolf Albert Kerkhoven, who is also Bosscha’s first-cousin, worked together with Bosscha at the Malabar Plantation. They are both interested in astronomy and together they decided to build the best observatory on the Southern Hemisphere. Their association with Voûte was akin to a divine intervention.

In the event of Leiden astronomers gaining control over the managing of the new observatory, Bosscha realized that he would never be able to compete in scientific authority with them. He is not a scientist. To neutralize this, he created a society that would act as a midwife and then nursemaid for the still-in-conception institution. Bosscha gathered patrons and learned men in the colony to form the Nederlandsch-Indische Sterrenkundige Vereeniging (NISV—Netherlands Indies Astronomical Association). Even though so named, this organization is built from the top down, not based on the common interests of its members. This organization was built to channel money into the observatory. Its membership was divided based on the amount of money they donated: Founding fathers donated more than 10 000 guilders; donors paid 500 guilders initiation fee and annual due of 100 guilders; ordinary members paid 10 guilders per annum. Up to 1928, it is estimated that this organization was able to donate 1 million guilders for the construction and daily operations of the observatory.

Bosscha then wrote a letter to Ejnar Hertzsprung to explain him of the latest conditions. NISV has been filled with influental men of the Indies: The vice-president of the Council of the Indies was honorary chairman of the society; The Naval Commander of the Indies, Vice-Admiral W.J.G. Umbgrove had honorary membership; The governing committee consisted of leaders of commercial companies then operating in the Indies (among others the Javanese Bank, Insulinde oil company, and the Dutch Commercial Company) as well as the rector of THB—to which Bosscha has donated a handsome sum of money; Bosscha himself stood as the chairman of the NISV and Kerkhoven as secretary. A parcel of land at Lembang—around 15 km to the north of Bandung and 600 meter above it—has been donated by the brothers Ursone, owners of the nearby dairy farming company Baroe Adjak, and the land’s right of ownership has been transferred to the NISV. Bosscha not only has obtained the cost estimation for a telescope with a focal length of 7 meter, but also has obtained book donations from the private library of Hendricus van de Sande Bakhuyzen.

As a successful entrepreneur and major philanthropist, Bosscha has fulfilled his role as a maecenas. Voûte then strengthened Bosscha’s commitment by suggesting that the new observatory be named Bosscha Observatory. He wrote to Hertzsprung, suggesting him to write a letter of support to be signed also by foremost metropolitan scientists. De Sitter tended to agree with Voûte, but neither Kapteyn nor Hertzsprung agreed. “Certainly we wish to thank Mr. K.A.R. Bosscha with all our heart for everything that he has done and to show our appreciation in some way,” Hertzsprung wrote to Voûte, but Bosscha might not turn out to be the principal benefactor as “there will be all kinds of money lender (about which we do not know at the moment) who will have to taken into account,” he continued. Hertzsprung and Kapteyn tended to name an instrument or a building with Bosscha’s name. It seemed possible that, if we collect all the receipts, Bosscha would not be the largest benefactors since Hertzsprung also worked to collect money from sources in The Netherlands.

Bosscha and Voûte later gave a mandate to the Leiden Observatory to oversee the purchase of instruments for the observatory, to placate them after effectively excluding them from determining the observatory’s program. Bosscha asked for Hertzsprung’s advice on the procurement of telescopes and the mounting system. He hoped to take advantage of the devaluation of the German Mark after the end of World War I to obtain a German-made telescope with good quality and cheap price. At the beginning of 1921, Bosscha was willing to pay a telescope with diameter of 60 cm and focal length 10 meter. This telescope was then ordered from the famous German optical company, Carl Zeiss Jena.

The construction of Bosscha Observatory started in 1923. In 1925 observing programs has started in earnest with available instruments. Carl Zeiss needs seven years to make and deliver the 60 cm telescope, which arrived in 1928. For the next two years Voûte struggled with its calibrations until he was satisfied with its performance. Since 1923, Voûte started to invite Dutch astronomers to work at his observatory. Voûte offered housing and a monthly stipend of 200 guilders for food and clothing. The first Dutch astronomer who came to Lembang was P.G. Meesters, an amateur astronomer without institutional affiliations. Meesters stayed for a few month in 1925, observing the southern sky. Next, Anton Pannekoek from Amsterdam, at the end of the same year stayed for five months to observe the southern Milky Way. One of the house at the Observatory complex where guest astronomers are staying was later named Pannekoek House.

The cold, distant, relations between Lembang and Leiden, after the ensuing political battles, resulted on the lack of Leiden astronomers’ presence in Lembang for the whole 1920s. Both institutes corresponded to each other regularly but it was formal and without any congeniality. After their failure in gaining control over Bosscha Observatory, Leiden astronomers concentrated on forging cooperations with South African astronomers in their efforts to build an observing station in the southern hemisphere.

After Pannekoek’s return to The Netherlands, German astronomer Paul ten Bruggencate stayed for two years between 1926–28 to observe southern Delta Cephei variables. ten Bruggencate produced streams of publications on his observations. These would later became the basis for his accession to prestigious institutions in Germany. ten Bruggencate’s replacement, Swedish astronomer Åke Anders Edvard Wallenquist, came in 1928 to observe southern galactic clusters and produced many publications as well. He stayed for seven years at Lembang, until 1935, and became the longest foreign observer to spend time in Lembang during the interwar period. Wallenquist would later return to Sweden and became the first director of Kvistaberg Observatory at Uppsala.

Egbert Adriaan Kreiken came later after as a permanent staff after Voûte decided to expand his staff. Taking his doctorate in Groningen under Kapteyn, Kreiken became an academic orphan after Kapteyn’s death in 1922. While working as a schoolteacher, in 1926 he became a private lecturer at the University of Amsterdam and later moved with his wife to Lembang in 1928, perhaps under the sponsorship of Pannekoek who was already having his own astronomical institute in Amsterdam. Kreiken observed double stars and would soon published his observations and theories. His stay was not very long, unfortunately, due to a conflict with Voûte. In 1930 he drove Kreiken out by making him accept a teaching post at a Hogere Burgerschool (HBS–Dutch secondary school) in Central Java. Kreiken would later had amazing careers and adventures in his life: becoming a Minister of Education under Soekarno in post-independence Indonesia, accepting UNESCO’s request to teach university students at Liberia (and going to this teaching post by driving across the Sahara from Europe), and leading the Ankara University Observatory in Turkey. Despite his conflict with Voûte, it was Kreiken who would later proved to be instrumental in securing the donation from UNESCO to provide the Observatory with a brand-new Schmidt camera.

Whatever the real nature of Voûte’s conflict with Kreiken, other outside factors of financial nature might influenced it. The Observatory was not immune to the financial woes caused by the Great Depression. The death of Voûte’s neighborly patron, K.A.R. Bosscha, in 1928, made things more difficult. The Netherlands Indies Naval Department effectively controlled the Observatory by providing 30 000 guilders annualy, about half of the operational cost, while the other half came from the NISV.

Voûte continued to lead the Observatory until 1939, when he retired at age 60. Willem de Sitter’s son, Aernout, succeeded him as director, thus bought Bosscha Observatory under the control of Leiden. However, in 1942, when Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies, Aernout de Sitter and two of his employees were incarcerated in Japanese concentration camp and, sadly, they died in the camp. Bosscha Observatory operated under the control of Masashi Miyadi, a young Japanese Army Captain who would later became the director of Tokyo Astronomical Observatory. Under his management, Voûte keep observing and he observed 11 000 pairs of double stars. After the Indonesian proclamation of independence in 1945, the Indonesians expelled Voûte from the observatory grounds on 8 October. A portion of his double star observations in this turbulent time were eventually published 10 years later in the Marseilles-based Journal des Observateurs (later merged with other European journals to become Astronomy & Astrophysics).

We can learn many things from the careers of Joan Voûte, a civil engineer turned astronomer. Without a doctorate, Voûte built his vision and showed us that the drive for pure learning transcends political dominations be it by Asian invaders of European professors. Refused to be dominated by metropolitan astronomers and embracing local maecenas, Voûte filled his observatory with international talents and undertaking independent research, standing equally with metropolitan academics. In 1929, recalling his days at the Observatory, Anton Pannekoek hoped that the Bosscha Observatory can continue to be a colleague of the European and American astronomers:

“The legacy has been left to the (Bosscha) Observatory destined to extend hospitality as `research associates’ to astronomers from Europa and America…”

as well as hoping that Bosscha Observatory can keep growing to be an important centre of learning:

“…the Bosscha Observatory bids fair to develop into an important centre of scientific research…”

Bibliography

• Bambang Hidayat, 2000, Under a tropical sky: A history of astronomy in Indonesia. Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 3(1): 45–58.
• Lewis Pyenson, 1989, Empire of Reason: Exact Sciences in Indonesia 1840–1940. Brill: Leiden.